Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems
Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior
Advanced Solutions for the AAMC Practice Materials
Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Foundational Concept 1
Content Category 1A: Structure and function of proteins and their constituent amino acids
- Description
- Absolute configuration at the α position
- Amino acids as dipolar ions
- Classifications
- Acidic or basic
- Hydrophobic or hydrophilic
- Reactions
- Sulfur linkage for cysteine and cystine
- Peptide linkage: polypeptides and proteins
- Hydrolysis
Protein Structure (BIO, BC, OC)
- Structure
- 1° structure of proteins
- 2° structure of proteins
- 3° structure of proteins; role of proline, cystine, hydrophobic bonding
- 4° structure of proteins (BIO,BC)
- Conformational stability
- Denaturing and folding
- Hydrophobic interactions
- Solvation layer (entropy) (BC)
- Separation techniques
- Isoelectric point
- Electrophoresis
Non-Enzymatic Protein Function (BIO, BC)
Enzyme Structure and Function (BIO, BC)
- Function of enzymes in catalyzing biological reactions
- Enzyme classification by reaction type
- Reduction of activation energy
- Substrates and enzyme specificity
- Active Site Model
- Induced-fit Model
- Mechanism of catalysis
- Cofactors
- Coenzymes
- Water-soluble vitamins
- Effects of local conditions on enzyme activity
Control of Enzyme Activity (BIO, BC)
- Kinetics
- General (catalysis)
- Michaelis–Menten
- Cooperativity
- Feedback regulation
- Inhibition – types
- Competitive
- Non-competitive
- Mixed (BC)
- Uncompetitive (BC)
- Regulatory enzymes
- Allosteric enzymes
- Covalently-modified enzymes
- Zymogen
Content Category 1B: Transmission of genetic information from the gene to the protein
Nucleic Acid Structure and Function (BIO, BC)
- Description
- Nucleotides and nucleosides
- Sugar phosphate backbone
- Pyrimidine, purine residues
- Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): double helix, Watson–Crick model of DNA structure
- Base pairing specificity: A with T, G with C
- Function in transmission of genetic information
- DNA denaturation, reannealing, and hybridization
DNA Replication (BIO)
- Mechanism of replication: separation of strands, specific coupling of free nucleic acids
- Semiconservative nature of replication
- Specific enzymes involved in replication
- Origins of replication, multiple origins in eukaryotes
- Replicating the ends of DNA molecules
Repair of DNA (BIO)
Genetic Code (BIO)
- Central Dogma: DNA → RNA → protein
- The triplet code
- Codon–anticodon relationship
- Degenerate code, wobble pairing
- Missense, nonsense codons
- Initiation, termination codons
- Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Transcription (BIO)
- Transfer RNA (tRNA); ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
- Mechanism of transcription
- mRNA processing in eukaryotes, introns, exons
- Ribozymes, spliceosomes, small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs), small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs)
- Functional and evolutionary importance of introns
Translation (BIO)
- Roles of mRNA, tRNA, rRNA
- Role and structure of ribosomes
- Initiation, termination co-factors
- Post-translational modification of proteins
Eukaryotic Chromosome Organization (BIO)
- Chromosomal proteins
- Single copy vs. repetitive DNA
- Supercoiling
- Heterochromatin vs. euchromatin
- Telomeres, centromeres
Control of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes (BIO)
Control of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes (BIO)
- Transcriptional regulation
- DNA binding proteins, transcription factors
- Gene amplification and duplication
- Post-transcriptional control, basic concept of splicing (introns, exons)
- Cancer as a failure of normal cellular controls, oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes
- Regulation of chromatin structure
- DNA methylation
- Role of non-coding RNAs
Recombinant DNA and Biotechnology (BIO)
- Gene cloning
- Restriction enzymes
- DNA libraries
- Generation of cDNA
- Hybridization
- Expressing cloned genes
- Polymerase chain reaction
- Gel electrophoresis and southern blotting
- DNA sequencing
- Analyzing gene expression
- Determining gene function
- Stem cells
- Practical applications of DNA technology: medical applications, human gene therapy, pharmaceuticals, forensic evidence, environmental cleanup, agriculture
- Safety and ethics of DNA technology
Content Category 1C: Transmission of heritable information from generation to generation and the processes that increase genetic diversity
Evidence that DNA is Genetic Material (BIO)
Mendelian Concepts (BIO)
- Phenotype and genotype
- Gene
- Locus
- Allele: single and multiple
- Homozygosity and heterozygosity
- Wild-type
- Recessiveness
- Complete dominance
- Co-dominance
- Incomplete dominance, leakage, penetrance, expressivity
- Hybridization: viability
- Gene pool
Meiosis and Other Factors Affecting Genetic Variability (BIO)
- Significance of meiosis
- Important differences between meiosis and mitosis
- Segregation of genes
- Independent assortment
- Linkage
- Recombination
- Single crossovers
- Double crossovers
- Synaptonemal complex
- Tetrad
- Sex-linked characteristics
- Very few genes on Y chromosome
- Sex determination
- Cytoplasmic/extranuclear inheritance
- Mutation
- General concept of mutation — error in DNA sequence
- Types of mutations: random, translation error, transcription error, base substitution, inversion, addition, deletion, translocation, mispairing
- Advantageous vs. deleterious mutation
- Inborn errors of metabolism
- Relationship of mutagens to carcinogens
- Genetic drift
- Synapsis or crossing-over mechanism for increasing genetic diversity
Analytic Methods (BIO)
- Hardy–Weinberg Principle
- Testcross (Backcross; concepts of parental, F1, and F2 generations)
- Gene mapping: crossover frequencies
- Biometry: statistical methods
Evolution (BIO)
- Natural selection
- Fitness concept
- Selection by differential reproduction
- Concepts of natural and group selection
- Evolutionary success as increase in percent representation in the gene pool of the next generation
- Speciation
- Polymorphism
- Adaptation and specialization
- Inbreeding
- Outbreeding
- Bottlenecks
- Evolutionary time as measured by gradual random changes in genome
Content Category 1D: Principles of bioenergetics and fuel molecule metabolism
Principles of Bioenergetics (BC, GC)
- Bioenergetics/thermodynamics
- Free energy/Keq
- Equilibrium constant
- Relationship of the equilibrium constant and ΔG°
- Concentration
- Le Châtelier’s Principle
- Endothermic/exothermic reactions
- Free energy: G
- Spontaneous reactions and ΔG°
- Free energy/Keq
- Phosphoryl group transfers and ATP
- ATP hydrolysis ΔG << 0
- ATP group transfers
- Biological oxidation-reduction
- Half-reactions
- Soluble electron carriers
- Flavoproteins
Carbohydrates (BC, OC)
- Description
- Nomenclature and classification, common names
- Absolute configuration
- Cyclic structure and conformations of hexoses
- Epimers and anomers
- Hydrolysis of the glycoside linkage
- Monosaccharides
- Disaccharides
- Polysaccharides
Glycolysis, Gluconeogenesis, and the Pentose Phosphate Pathway (BIO, BC)
- Glycolysis (aerobic), substrates and products
- Feeder pathways: glycogen, starch metabolism
- Fermentation (anaerobic glycolysis)
- Gluconeogenesis (BC)
- Pentose phosphate pathway (BC)
- Net molecular and energetic results of respiration processes
Principles of Metabolic Regulation (BC)
- Regulation of metabolic pathways (BIO, BC)
- Maintenance of a dynamic steady state
- Regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
- Metabolism of glycogen
- Regulation of glycogen synthesis and breakdown
- Allosteric and hormonal control
- Analysis of metabolic control
Citric Acid Cycle (BIO, BC)
- Acetyl-CoA production (BC)
- Reactions of the cycle, substrates and products
- Regulation of the cycle
- Net molecular and energetic results of respiration processes
Metabolism of Fatty Acids and Proteins (BIO, BC)
- Description of fatty acids (BC)
- Digestion, mobilization, and transport of fats
- Oxidation of fatty acids
- Saturated fats
- Unsaturated fats
- Ketone bodies (BC)
- Anabolism of fats (BIO)
- Non-template synthesis: biosynthesis of lipids and polysaccharides (BIO)
- Metabolism of proteins (BIO)
Oxidative Phosphorylation (BIO, BC)
- Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation, substrates and products, general features of the pathway
- Electron transfer in mitochondria
- NADH, NADPH
- Flavoproteins
- Cytochromes
- ATP synthase, chemiosmotic coupling
- Proton motive force
- Net molecular and energetic results of respiration processes
- Regulation of oxidative phosphorylation
- Mitochondria, apoptosis, oxidative stress (BC)
Hormonal Regulation and Integration of Metabolism (BC)
- Higher level integration of hormone structure and function
- Tissue specific metabolism
- Hormonal regulation of fuel metabolism
- Obesity and regulation of body mass
Foundational Concept 2
Category 2A: Assemblies of molecules, cells, and groups of cells within single cellular and multicellular organisms
Plasma Membrane (BIO, BC)
- General function in cell containment
- Composition of membranes
- Lipid components (BIO, BC, OC)
- Phospholipids (and phosphatids)
- Steroids
- Waxes
- Protein components
- Fluid mosaic model
- Lipid components (BIO, BC, OC)
- Membrane dynamics
- Solute transport across membranes
- Thermodynamic considerations
- Osmosis
- Colligative properties; osmotic pressure (GC)
- Passive transport
- Active transport
- Sodium/potassium pump
- Membrane channels
- Membrane potential
- Membrane receptors
- Exocytosis and endocytosis
- Intercellular junctions (BIO)
- Gap junctions
- Tight junctions
- Desmosomes
Membrane-Bound Organelles and Defining Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells (BIO)
- Defining characteristics of eukaryotic cells
- Nucleus
- Compartmentalization, storage of genetic information
- Nucleolus: location and function
- Nuclear envelope, nuclear pores
- Mitochondria
- Site of ATP production
- Inner and outer membrane structure (BIO, BC)
- Self-replication
- Lysosomes: membrane-bound vesicles containing hydrolytic enzymes
- Endoplasmic reticulum
- Rough and smooth components
- Rough endoplasmic reticulum site of ribosomes
- Double membrane structure
- Role in membrane biosynthesis
- Role in biosynthesis of secreted proteins
- Golgi apparatus: general structure and role in packaging and secretion
- Peroxisomes: organelles that collect peroxides
Cytoskeleton (BIO)
- General function in cell support and movement
- Microfilaments: composition and role in cleavage and contractility
- Microtubules: composition and role in support and transport
- Intermediate filaments, role in support
- Composition and function of cilia and flagella
- Centrioles, microtubule organizing centers
Tissues Formed From Eukaryotic Cells (BIO)
Content Category 2B: The structure, growth, physiology, and genetics of prokaryotes and viruses
Cell Theory (BIO)
Classification and Structure of Prokaryotic Cells (BIO)
- Prokaryotic domains
- Archaea
- Bacteria
- Major classifications of bacteria by shape
- Bacilli (rod-shaped)
- Spirilli (spiral-shaped)
- Cocci (spherical)
- Lack of nuclear membrane and mitotic apparatus
- Lack of typical eukaryotic organelles
- Presence of cell wall in bacteria
- Flagellar propulsion, mechanism
Growth and Physiology of Prokaryotic Cells (BIO)
- Reproduction by fission
- High degree of genetic adaptability, acquisition of antibiotic resistance
- Exponential growth
- Existence of anaerobic and aerobic variants
- Parasitic and symbiotic
- Chemotaxis
Genetics of Prokaryotic Cells (BIO)
- Existence of plasmids, extragenomic DNA
- Transformation: incorporation into bacterial genome of DNA fragments from external medium
- Conjugation
- Transposons (also present in eukaryotic cells)
Virus Structure (BIO)
- General structural characteristics (nucleic acid and protein, enveloped and nonenveloped)
- Lack organelles and nucleus
- Structural aspects of typical bacteriophage
- Genomic content — RNA or DNA
- Size relative to bacteria and eukaryotic cells
Viral Life Cycle (BIO)
- Self-replicating biological units that must reproduce within specific host cell
- Generalized phage and animal virus life cycles
- Attachment to host, penetration of cell membrane or cell wall, and entry of viral genetic material
- Use of host synthetic mechanism to replicate viral components
- Self-assembly and release of new viral particles
- Transduction: transfer of genetic material by viruses
- Retrovirus life cycle: integration into host DNA, reverse transcriptase, HIV
- Prions and viroids: subviral particles
Content Category 2C: Processes of cell division, differentiation, and specialization
Mitosis (BIO)
- Mitotic process: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, interphase
- Mitotic structures
- Centrioles, asters, spindles
- Chromatids, centromeres, kinetochores
- Nuclear membrane breakdown and reorganization
- Mechanisms of chromosome movement
- Phases of cell cycle: G0, G1, S, G2, M
- Growth arrest
- Control of cell cycle
- Loss of cell cycle controls in cancer cells
Biosignalling (BC)
Reproductive System (BIO)
- Gametogenesis by meiosis
- Ovum and sperm
- Differences in formation
- Differences in morphology
- Relative contribution to next generation
- Reproductive sequence: fertilization; implantation; development; birth
Embryogenesis (BIO)
- Stages of early development (order and general features of each)
- Fertilization
- Cleavage
- Blastula formation
- Gastrulation
- First cell movements
- Formation of primary germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm)
- Neurulation
- Major structures arising out of primary germ layers
- Neural crest
- Environment–gene interaction in Development
Mechanisms of Development (BIO)
- Cell specialization
- Determination
- Differentiation
- Tissue types
- Cell–cell communication in development
- Cell migration
- Pluripotency: stem cells
- Gene regulation in development
- Programmed cell death
- Existence of regenerative capacity in various species
- Senescence and aging
Foundational Concept 3
Content Category 3A: Structure and functions of the nervous and endocrine systems and ways in which these systems coordinate the organ systems
Nervous System: Structure and Function (BIO)
- Major Functions
- High level control and integration of body systems
- Adaptive capability to external influences
- Sensor and effector neurons
- Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems: antagonistic control
- Reflexes
- Feedback loop, reflex arc
- Role of spinal cord and supraspinal circuits
- Integration with endocrine system: feedback control
Nerve Cell (BIO)
- Cell body: site of nucleus, organelles
- Dendrites: branched extensions of cell body
- Axon: structure and function
- Myelin sheath, Schwann cells, insulation of axon
- Nodes of Ranvier: propagation of nerve impulse along axon
- Synapse: site of impulse propagation between cells
- Synaptic activity: transmitter molecules
- Resting potential: electrochemical gradient
- Action potential
- Threshold, all-or-none
- Sodium/potassium pump
- Excitatory and inhibitory nerve fibers: summation, frequency of firing
- Glial cells, neuroglia
Electrochemistry (GC)
Biosignalling (BC)
- G-protein-coupled receptors
- Voltage gated
- Ligand gated
- Receptor enzymes
- Gated ion channels
Lipids (BC, OC)
- Description; Structure
- Steroids
- Terpenes and terpenoids
Endocrine System: Hormones and Their Sources (BIO)
- Function of endocrine system: specific chemical control at cell, tissue, and organ level
- Definitions of endocrine glands, hormones
- Major endocrine glands: names, locations, products
- Major types of hormones
- Neuroendrocrinology ― relation between neurons and hormonal systems
Endocrine System: Mechanisms of Hormone Action (BIO)
- Cellular mechanisms of hormone action
- Transport of hormones: blood supply
- Specificity of hormones: target tissue
- Integration with nervous system: feedback control
- Regulation by second messengers
Category 3B: Structure and integrative functions of the main organ systems
Respiratory System (BIO)
- General function
- Gas exchange, thermoregulation
- Protection against disease: particulate matter
- Structure of lungs and alveoli
- Breathing mechanisms
- Diaphragm, rib cage, differential pressure
- Resiliency and surface tension effects
- Thermoregulation: nasal and tracheal capillary beds; evaporation, panting
- Particulate filtration: nasal hairs, mucus/cilia system in lungs
- Alveolar gas exchange
- Diffusion, differential partial pressure
- Henry’s Law (GC)
- pH control
- Regulation by nervous control
- CO2 sensitivity
Circulatory System (BIO)
- Functions: circulation of oxygen, nutrients, hormones, ions and fluids, removal of metabolic waste
- Role in thermoregulation
- Four-chambered heart: structure and function
- Endothelial cells
- Systolic and diastolic pressure
- Pulmonary and systemic circulation
- Arterial and venous systems (arteries, arterioles, venules, veins)
- Structural and functional differences
- Pressure and flow characteristics
- Capillary beds
- Mechanisms of gas and solute exchange
- Mechanism of heat exchange
- Source of peripheral resistance
- Composition of blood
- Plasma, chemicals, blood cells
- Erythrocyte production and destruction; spleen, bone marrow
- Regulation of plasma volume
- Coagulation, clotting mechanisms
- Oxygen transport by blood
- Hemoglobin, hematocrit
- Oxygen content
- Oxygen affinity
- Carbon dioxide transport and level in blood
- Nervous and endocrine control
Lymphatic System (BIO)
- Structure of lymphatic system
- Major functions
- Equalization of fluid distribution
- Transport of proteins and large glycerides
- Production of lymphocytes involved in immune reactions
- Return of materials to the blood
Immune System (BIO)
- Innate (non-specific) vs. adaptive (specific) immunity
- Adaptive immune system cells
- T-lymphocytes
- B-lymphocytes
- Innate immune system cells
- Macrophages
- Phagocytes
- Tissues
- Bone marrow
- Spleen
- Thymus
- Lymph nodes
- Concept of antigen and antibody
- Antigen presentation
- Clonal selection
- Antigen-antibody recognition
- Structure of antibody molecule
- Recognition of self vs. non-self, autoimmune diseases
- Major histocompatibility complex
Digestive System (BIO)
- Ingestion
- Saliva as lubrication and source of enzymes
- Ingestion; esophagus, transport function
- Stomach
- Storage and churning of food
- Low pH, gastric juice, mucal protection against self-destruction
- Production of digestive enzymes, site of digestion
- Structure (gross)
- Liver
- Structural relationship of liver within gastrointestinal system
- Production of bile
- Role in blood glucose regulation, detoxification
- Bile
- Storage in gall bladder
- Function
- Pancreas
- Production of enzymes
- Transport of enzymes to small intestine
- Small intestine
- Absorption of food molecules and water
- Function and structure of villi
- Production of enzymes, site of digestion
- Neutralization of stomach acid
- Structure (anatomic subdivisions)
- Large intestine
- Absorption of water
- Bacterial flora
- Structure (gross)
- Rectum: storage and elimination of waste, feces
- Muscular control
- Peristalsis
- Endocrine control
- Hormones
- Target tissues
- Nervous control: the enteric nervous system
Excretory System (BIO)
- Roles in homeostasis
- Blood pressure
- Osmoregulation
- Acid–base balance
- Removal of soluble nitrogenous waste
- Kidney structure
- Cortex
- Medulla
- Nephron structure
- Glomerulus
- Bowman’s capsule
- Proximal tubule
- Loop of Henle
- Distal tubule
- Collecting duct
- Formation of urine
- Glomerular filtration
- Secretion and reabsorption of solutes
- Concentration of urine
- Counter-current multiplier mechanism
- Storage and elimination: ureter, bladder, urethra
- Osmoregulation: capillary reabsorption of H2O, amino acids, glucose, ions
- Muscular control: sphincter muscle
Reproductive System (BIO)
- Male and female reproductive structures and their functions
- Gonads
- Genitalia
- Differences between male and female structures
- Hormonal control of reproduction
- Male and female sexual development
- Female reproductive cycle
- Pregnancy, parturition, lactation
- Integration with nervous control
Muscle System (BIO)
- Important Functions
- Support: mobility
- Peripheral circulatory assistance
- Thermoregulation (shivering reflex)
- Structure of three basic muscle types: striated, smooth, cardiac
- Muscle Structure and control of contraction
- T-tubule system
- Contractile apparatus
- Sarcoplasmic reticulum
- Fiber type
- Contractile velocity of different muscle types
- Regulation of cardiac muscle contraction
- Oxygen debt: fatigue
- Nervous Control
- Motor neurons
- Neuromuscular junction, motor end plates
- Sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation
- Voluntary and involuntary muscles
Specialized Cell – Muscle Cell (BIO)
- Structural Characteristics of Striated, Smooth, and Cardiac Muscle
- Abundant Mitochondria in Red Muscle Cells: ATP Source
- Organization of Contractile Elements: Actin and Myosin Filaments, Crossbridges, Sliding Filament Model
- Sarcomeres: “I” and “A” Bands, “M” and “Z” Lines, “H” Zone
- Presence of Troponin and Tropomyosin
- Calcium Regulation of Contraction
Skeletal System (BIO)
- Functions
- Structural rigidity and support
- Calcium storage
- Physical protection
- Skeletal structure
- Specialization of bone types, structures
- Joint structures
- Endoskeleton vs. exoskeleton
- Bone structure
- Calcium/protein matrix
- Cellular composition of bone
- Cartilage: structure and function
- Ligaments, tendons
- Endocrine control
Skin System (BIO)
- Structure
- Layer differentiation, cell types
- Relative impermeability to water
- Functions in homeostasis and osmoregulation
- Functions in thermoregulation
- Hair, erectile musculature
- Fat layer for insulation
- Sweat glands, location in dermis
- Vasoconstriction and vasodilation in surface capillaries
- Physical protection
- Nails, calluses, hair
- Protection against abrasion, disease organisms
- Hormonal control: sweating, vasodilation, and vasoconstriction
Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems
Foundational Concept 4
Content Category 4A: Translational motion, forces, work, energy, and equilibrium in living systems
Translational Motion (PHY)
- Units and dimensions
- Vectors, components
- Vector addition
- Speed, velocity (average and instantaneous)
- Acceleration
Force (PHY)
- Newton’s First Law, inertia
- Newton’s Second Law (F = ma)
- Newton’s Third Law, forces equal and opposite
- Friction, static, and kinetic
- Center of mass
Equilibrium (PHY)
Work (PHY)
- Work done by a constant force: W = Fd cosθ
- Mechanical advantage
- Work Kinetic Energy Theorem
- Conservative forces
Energy of Point Object Systems (PHY)
- Kinetic Energy: KE = 1⁄2 mv2; units
- Potential Energy
- PE = mgh (gravitational, local)
- PE = 1⁄2 kx^2 (spring)
- Conservation of energy
- Power, units
Periodic Motion (PHY)
Content Category 4B: Importance of fluids for the circulation of blood, gas movement, and gas exchange
Fluids (PHY)
- Density, specific gravity
- Buoyancy, Archimedes’ Principle
- Hydrostatic pressure
- Pascal’s Law
- Hydrostatic pressure; P = ρgh (pressure vs. depth)
- Viscosity: Poiseuille Flow
- Continuity equation (A∙v = constant)
- Concept of turbulence at high velocities
- Surface tension
- Bernoulli’s equation
- Venturi effect, pitot tube
Circulatory System (BIO)
Gas Phase (GC, PHY)
- Absolute temperature, (K) Kelvin Scale
- Pressure, simple mercury barometer
- Molar volume at 0°C and 1 atm = 22.4 L/mol
- Ideal gas
- Definition
- Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT
- Boyle’s Law: PV = constant
- Charles’ Law: V/T = constant
- Avogadro’s Law: V/n = constant
- Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
- Heat capacity at constant volume and at constant pressure (PHY)
- Boltzmann’s Constant (PHY)
- Deviation of real gas behavior from ideal gas law
- Qualitative
- Quantitative (Van der Waals’ Equation)
- Partial Pressure, mole fraction
- Dalton’s Law relating partial pressure to composition
Content Category 4C: Electrochemistry and electrical circuits and their elements
Electrostatics (PHY)
- Charge, conductors, charge conservation
- Insulators
- Coulomb’s Law
- Electric Field E
- Field lines
- Field due to charge distribution
- Electrostatic energy, electric potential at a point in space
Circuit Elements (PHY)
- Current I = ΔQ/Δt, sign conventions, units
- Electromotive force, voltage
- Resistance
- Ohm’s Law: I = V/R
- Resistors in series
- Resistors in parallel
- Resistivity: ρ = R•A / L
- Capacitance
- Parallel plate capacitor
- Energy of charged capacitor
- Capacitors in series
- Capacitors in parallel
- Dielectrics
- Conductivity
- Metallic
- Electrolytic
- Meters
Magnetism (PHY)
Electrochemistry (GC)
- Electrolytic Cell
- Electrolysis
- Anode, cathode
- Electrolyte
- Faraday’s Law relating amount of elements deposited (or gas liberated) at an electrode to current
- Electron flow; oxidation, and reduction at the electrodes
- Galvanic or Voltaic cells
- Half-reactions
- Reduction potentials; cell potential
- Direction of electron flow
- Concentration Cell
- Batteries
- Electromotive force, Voltage
- Lead-storage batteries
- Nickel-cadmium batteries
Specialized Cell – Nerve Cell (BIO)
- Myelin sheath, Schwann cells, insulation of axon
- Nodes of Ranvier: propagation of nerve impulse along axon
Content Category 4D: How light and sound interact with matter
Sound (PHY)
- Production of sound
- Relative speed of sound in solids, liquids, and gases
- Intensity of sound, decibel units, log scale
- Attenuation (Damping)
- Doppler Effect: moving sound source or observer, reflection of sound from a moving object
- Pitch
- Resonance in pipes and strings
- Ultrasound
- Shock waves
Light, Electromagnetic Radiation (PHY)
- Concept of Interference; Young Double-slit Experiment
- Thin films, diffraction grating, single-slit diffraction
- Other diffraction phenomena, X-ray diffraction
- Polarization of light: linear and circular
- Properties of electromagnetic radiation
- Velocity equals constant c, in vacuo
- Electromagnetic radiation consists of perpendicularly oscillating electric and magnetic fields; direction of propagation is perpendicular to both
- Classification of electromagnetic spectrum, photon energy E = hf
- Visual spectrum, color
Molecular Structure and Absorption Spectra (OC)
- Infrared Region
- Intramolecular vibrations and rotations
- Recognizing common characteristic group absorptions, fingerprint region
- Visible Region
- Absorption in visible region gives complementary color (e.g., carotene)
- Effect of structural changes on absorption (e.g., indicators)
- Ultraviolet Region
- π-Electron and non-bonding electron transitions
- Conjugated systems
- NMR Spectroscopy
- Protons in a magnetic field; equivalent protons
- Spin-spin splitting
Geometrical Optics (PHY)
- Reflection from plane surface: angle of incidence equals angle of reflection
- Refraction, refractive index n; Snell’s law: n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
- Dispersion, change of index of refraction with wavelength
- Conditions for total internal reflection
- Spherical mirrors
- Center of curvature
- Focal length
- Real and virtual images
- Thin lenses
- Converging and diverging lenses
- Use of formula 1/p + 1/q = 1/f, with sign conventions
- Lens strength, diopters
- Combination of lenses
- Lens aberration
- Optical Instruments, including the human eye
Content Category 4E: Atoms, nuclear decay, electronic structure, and atomic chemical behavior
Atomic Nucleus (PHY, GC)
- Atomic number, atomic weight
- Neutrons, protons, isotopes
- Nuclear forces, binding energy
- Radioactive decay
- α, β, γ decay
- Half-life, exponential decay, semi-log plots
- Mass spectrometer
Electronic Structure (PHY, GC)
- Orbital structure of hydrogen atom, principal quantum number n, number of electrons per orbital (GC)
- Ground state, excited states
- Absorption and emission line spectra
- Use of Pauli Exclusion Principle
- Paramagnetism and diamagnetism
- Conventional notation for electronic structure (GC)
- Bohr atom
- Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
- Effective nuclear charge (GC)
- Photoelectric effect
The Periodic Table – Classification of Elements into Groups by Electronic Structure (GC)
- Alkali metals
- Alkaline earth metals: their chemical characteristics
- Halogens: their chemical characteristics
- Noble gases: their physical and chemical characteristics
- Transition metals
- Representative elements
- Metals and non-metals
- Oxygen group
The Periodic Table – Variations of Chemical Properties with Group and Row (GC)
- Valence electrons
- First and second ionization energy
- Definition
- Prediction from electronic structure for elements in different groups or rows
- Electron affinity
- Definition
- Variation with group and row
- Electronegativity
- Definition
- Comparative values for some representative elements and important groups
- Electron shells and the sizes of atoms
- Electron shells and the sizes of ions
Stoichiometry (GC)
- Molecular weight
- Empirical versus molecular formula
- Metric units commonly used in the context of chemistry
- Description of composition by percent mass
- Mole concept, Avogadro’s number NA
- Definition of density
- Oxidation number
- Common oxidizing and reducing agents
- Disproportionation reactions
- Description of reactions by chemical equations
- Conventions for writing chemical equations
- Balancing equations, including redox equations
- Limiting reactants
- Theoretical yields
Foundational Concept 5
Content Category 5A: Unique nature of water and its solutions
Acid/Base Equilibria (GC, BC)
- Brønsted–Lowry definition of acid, base
- Ionization of water
- Kw, its approximate value (Kw = [H+ ][OH– ] = 10^(–14) at 25°C, 1 atm)
- Definition of pH: pH of pure water
- Conjugate acids and bases (e.g., NH4+ and NH3)
- Strong acids and bases (e.g., nitric, sulfuric)
- Weak acids and bases (e.g., acetic, benzoic)
- Dissociation of weak acids and bases with or without added salt
- Hydrolysis of salts of weak acids or bases
- Calculation of pH of solutions of salts of weak acids or bases
- Equilibrium Constants Ka and Kb: pKa, pKb
- Buffers
- Definition and concepts (common buffer systems)
- Influence on titration curves
Ions in Solutions (GC, BC)
- Anion, cation: common names, formulas and charges for familiar ions (e.g., NH4+ ammonium, PO4 3– phosphate, SO4 2– sulfate)
- Hydration, the hydronium ion
Solubility (GC)
- Units of concentration (e.g., molarity)
- Solubility product constant; the equilibrium expression Ksp
- Common ion effect, its use in laboratory separations
- Complex ion formation
- Complex ions and solubility
- Solubility and pH
Titration (GC)
Content Category 5B: Nature of molecules and intermolecular interactions
Covalent Bond (GC)
- Lewis Electron Dot formulas
- Resonance structures
- Formal charge
- Lewis acids and bases
- Partial ionic character
- Role of electronegativity in determining charge distribution
- Dipole Moment
- Sigma and Pi bonds
- Hybrid orbitals: sp3 , sp2 , sp and respective geometries
- Valence shell electron pair repulsion and the prediction of shapes of molecules (e.g., NH3, H2O, CO2)
- Structural formulas for molecules involving H, C, N, O, F, S, P, Si, Cl
- Delocalized electrons and resonance in ions and molecules
- Multiple bonding
- Effect on bond length and bond energies
- Rigidity in molecular structure
- Stereochemistry of covalently bonded molecules (OC)
- Isomers
- Structural isomers
- Stereoisomers (e.g., diastereomers, enantiomers, cis/trans isomers)
- Conformational isomers
- Polarization of light, specific rotation
- Absolute and relative configuration
- Conventions for writing R and S forms
- Conventions for writing E and Z forms
- Isomers
Liquid Phase – Intermolecular Forces (GC)
Content Category 5C: Separation and purification methods
Separations and Purifications (OC, BC)
- Extraction: distribution of solute between two immiscible solvents
- Distillation
- Chromatography: Basic principles involved in separation process
- Column chromatography
- Gas-liquid chromatography
- High pressure liquid chromatography
- Paper chromatography
- Thin-layer chromatography
- Column chromatography
- Separation and purification of peptides and proteins (BC)
- Electrophoresis
- Quantitative analysis
- Chromatography
- Size-exclusion
- Ion-exchange
- Affinity
- Racemic mixtures, separation of enantiomers (OC)
Content Category 5D: Structure, function, and reactivity of biologically-relevant molecules
Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids (BC, BIO)
- Nucleotides and nucleosides: composition
- Sugar phosphate backbone
- Pyrimidine, purine residues
- Deoxyribonucleic acid: DNA; double helix
- Chemistry (BC)
- Other functions (BC)
Amino Acids, Peptides, Proteins (OC, BC)
- Amino acids: description
- Absolute configuration at the α position
- Dipolar ions
- Classification
- Acidic or basic
- Hydrophilic or hydrophobic
- Synthesis of α-amino acids (OC)
- Strecker Synthesis
- Gabriel Synthesis
- Peptides and proteins: reactions
- Sulfur linkage for cysteine and cystine
- Peptide linkage: polypeptides and proteins
- Hydrolysis (BC)
- General Principles
- Primary structure of proteins
- Secondary structure of proteins
- Tertiary structure of proteins
- Isoelectric point
The Three-Dimensional Protein Structure (BC)
- Conformational Stability
- Hydrophobic interactions
- Solvation layer (entropy)
- Quaternary structure
- Denaturing and Folding
Non-Enzymatic Protein Function (BC)
Lipids (BC, OC)
- Description, Types
- Storage
- Triacyl glycerols
- Free fatty acids: saponification
- Structural
- Phospholipids and phosphatids
- Sphingolipids (BC)
- Waxes
- Signals/cofactors
- Fat-soluble vitamins
- Steroids
- Prostaglandins (BC)
- Storage
Carbohydrates (OC)
- Description
- Nomenclature and classification, common names
- Absolute configuration
- Cyclic structure and conformations of hexoses
- Epimers and anomers
- Hydrolysis of the glycoside linkage
- Keto-enol tautomerism of monosaccharides
- Disaccharides (BC)
- Polysaccharides (BC)
Aldehydes and Ketones (OC)
- Description
- Nomenclature
- Physical properties
- Important reactions
- Nucleophilic addition reactions at C=O bond
- Acetal, hemiacetal
- Imine, enamine
- Hydride reagents
- Cyanohydrin
- Oxidation of aldehydes
- Reactions at adjacent positions: enolate chemistry
- Keto-enol tautomerism (α-racemization)
- Aldol condensation, retro-aldol
- Kinetic versus thermodynamic enolate
- Nucleophilic addition reactions at C=O bond
- General principles
- Effect of substituents on reactivity of C=O; steric hindrance
- Acidity of α-H; carbanions
Alcohols (OC)
- Description
- Nomenclature
- Physical properties (acidity, hydrogen bonding)
- Important Reactions
- Oxidation
- Substitution reactions: SN1 or SN2
- Protection of alcohols
- Preparation of mesylates and tosylates
Carboxylic Acids (OC)
- Description
- Nomenclature
- Physical properties
- Important reactions
- Carboxyl group reactions
- Amides (and lactam), esters (and lactone), anhydride formation
- Reduction
- Decarboxylation
- Reactions at 2-position, substitution
- Carboxyl group reactions
Acid Derivatives (Anhydrides, Amides, Esters) (OC)
- Description
- Nomenclature
- Physical properties
- Important Reactions
- Nucleophilic substitution
- Transesterification
- Hydrolysis of amides
- General Principles
- Relative reactivity of acid derivatives
- Steric effects
- Electronic effects
- Strain (e.g., β-lactams)
Phenols (OC, BC)
Polycyclic and Heterocyclic Aromatic Compounds (OC, BC)
Content Category 5E: Principles of chemical thermodynamics and kinetics
Enzymes (BC, BIO)
- Classification by reaction type
- Mechanism
- Substrates and enzyme specificity
- Active site model
- Induced-fit model
- Cofactors, coenzymes, and vitamins
- Kinetics
- General (catalysis)
- Michaelis–Menten
- Cooperativity
- Effects of local conditions on enzyme activity
- Inhibition
- Regulatory enzymes
- Allosteric
- Covalently modified
Principles of Bioenergetics (BC)
- Bioenergetics/thermodynamics
- Free energy/Keq
- Concentration
- Phosphorylation/ATP
- ATP hydrolysis ΔG << 0
- ATP group transfers
- Biological oxidation–reduction
- Half-reactions
- Soluble electron carriers
- Flavoproteins
Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions – Thermochemistry, Thermodynamics (GC, PHY)
- Thermodynamic system – state functions
- Zeroth Law – concept of temperature
- First Law – conservation of energy in thermodynamic processes
- PV Diagram: work done = area under or enclosed by curve (PHY)
- Second Law – concept of entropy
- Entropy as a measure of “disorder”
- Relative entropy for gas, liquid, and crystal states
- Measurement of heat changes (calorimetry), heat capacity, specific heat
- Heat transfer – conduction, convection, radiation (GC)
- Endothermic/exothermic reactions (GC)
- Enthalpy, H, and standard heats of reaction and formation
- Hess’ Law of Heat Summation
- Bond dissociation energy as related to heats of formation (GC)
- Free Energy: G (GC)
- Spontaneous reactions and ΔG° (GC)
- Coefficient of expansion (PHY)
- Heat of fusion, heat of vaporization
- Phase diagram: pressure and temperature
Rate Processes in Chemical Reactions – Kinetics and Equilibrium (GC)
- Reaction rate
- Dependence of reaction rate on concentration of reactants
- Rate law, rate constant
- Reaction order
- Rate-determining step
- Dependence of reaction rate upon temperature
- Activation energy
- Activated complex or transition state
- Interpretation of energy profiles showing energies of reactants, products, activation energy, and ΔH for the reaction
- Use of the Arrhenius Equation
- Activation energy
- Kinetic control versus thermodynamic control of a reaction
- Catalysts
- Equilibrium in reversible chemical reactions
- Law of Mass Action
- Equilibrium Constant
- Application of Le Châtelier’s Principle
- Relationship of the equilibrium constant and ΔG°
Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior
Foundational Concept 6
Content Category 6A: Sensing the environment
Sensory Processing (PSY, BIO)
- Sensation
- Threshold
- Weber’s Law (PSY)
- Signal detection theory (PSY)
- Sensory adaptation
- Psychophysics
- Sensory Receptors
- Sensory pathways
- Types of sensory receptor
Vision (PSY, BIO)
- Structure and function of the eye
- Visual processing
- Visual pathways in the brain
- Parallel processing (PSY)
- Feature detection (PSY)
Hearing (PSY, BIO)
- Structure and function of the ear
- Auditory processing (e.g., auditory pathways in the brain)
- Sensory reception by hair cells
Other Senses (PSY, BIO)
- Somatosensation (e.g., pain perception)
- Taste (e.g., taste buds/chemoreceptors that detect specific chemicals)
- Smell
- Olfactory cells/chemoreceptors that detect specific chemicals
- Pheromones (BIO)
- Olfactory pathways in the brain (BIO)
- Kinesthetic sense (PSY)
- Vestibular sense
Perception (PSY)
- Bottom-up/Top-down processing
- Perceptual organization (e.g., depth, form, motion, constancy)
- Gestalt principles
Content Category 6B: Making sense of the environment
Attention (PSY)
Cognition (PSY)
- Information-processing model
- Cognitive development
- Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
- Cognitive changes in late adulthood
- Role of culture in cognitive development
- Influence of heredity and environment on cognitive development
- Biological factors that affect cognition (PSY, BIO)
- Problem-solving and decision making
- Types of problem solving
- Barriers to effective problem solving
- Approaches to problem solving
- Heuristics and biases (e.g., overconfidence, belief perseverance)
- Intellectual functioning
- Theories of intelligence
- Influence of heredity and environment on intelligence
- Variations in intellectual ability
Consciousness (PSY)
- States of consciousness
- Alertness (PSY, BIO)
- Sleep
- Stages of sleep
- Sleep cycles and changes to sleep cycles
- Sleep and circadian rhythms (PSY, BIO)
- Dreaming
- Sleep–wake disorders
- Hypnosis and meditation
- Consciousness-altering drugs
- Types of consciousness-altering drugs and their effects on the nervous system and behavior
- Drug addiction and the reward pathway in the brain
Memory (PSY)
- Encoding
- Process of encoding information
- Processes that aid in encoding memories
- Storage
- Types of memory storage (e.g., sensory, working, long-term)
- Semantic networks and spreading activation
- Retrieval
- Recall, recognition, and relearning
- Retrieval cues
- The role of emotion in retrieving memories (PSY, BIO)
- Processes that aid retrieval
- Forgetting
- Aging and memory
- Memory dysfunctions (e.g., Alzheimer’s disease, Korsakoff’s syndrome)
- Decay
- Interference
- Memory construction and source monitoring
- Changes in Synaptic Connections Underlie Memory and Learning
- Neural plasticity
- Memory and learning
- Long-term potentiation
Language (PSY)
- Theories of language development (e.g., learning, Nativist, Interactionist)
- Influence of language on cognition
- Brain areas that control language and speech
Content Category 6C: Responding to the world
Emotion (PSY)
- Three components of emotion (i.e. cognitive, physiological, behavioral)
- Universal emotions (i.e., fear, anger, happiness, surprise, joy, disgust, and sadness)
- Adaptive role of emotion
- Theories of emotion
- James–Lange theory
- Cannon–Bard theory
- Schachter–Singer theory
- The role of biological processes in perceiving emotion (PSY, BIO)
- Brain regions involved in the generation and experience of emotions
- The role of the limbic system in emotion
- Emotion and the autonomic nervous system
- Physiological markers of emotion (signatures of emotion)
Stress (PSY)
- The nature of stress
- Appraisal
- Different types of stressors (e.g., cataclysmic events, personal)
- Effects of stress on psychological functions
- Stress outcomes/response to stressors
- Physiological (PSY, BIO)
- Emotional
- Behavioral
- Managing stress (e.g., exercise, relaxation, spirituality)
Foundational Concept 7
Content Category 7A: Individual influences on behavior
Biological Bases of Behavior (PSY, BIO)
- The nervous system
- Neurons (e.g., the reflex arc)
- Neurotransmitters
- Structure and function of the peripheral nervous system
- Structure and function of the central nervous system
- The brain
- Forebrain
- Midbrain
- Hindbrain
- Lateralization of cortical functions
- Methods used in studying the brain
- The spinal cord
- The brain
- Neuronal communication and its influence on behavior (PSY)
- Influence of neurotransmitters on behavior (PYS)
- The endocrine system
- Components of the endocrine system
- Effects of the endocrine system on behavior
- Behavioral genetics
- Genes, temperament, and heredity
- Adaptive value of traits and behaviors
- Interaction between heredity and environmental influences
- Influence of genetic and environmental factors on the development of behaviors
- Experience and behavior (PSY)
- Regulatory genes and behavior (BIO)
- Genetically based behavioral variation in natural populations
- Human physiological development (PSY)
- Prenatal development
- Motor development
- Developmental changes in adolescence
Personality (PSY)
- Theories of personality
- Psychoanalytic perspective
- Humanistic perspective
- Trait perspective
- Social cognitive perspective
- Biological perspective
- Behaviorist perspective
- Situational approach to explaining behavior
Psychological Disorders (PSY)
- Understanding psychological disorders
- Biomedical vs. biopsychosocial approaches
- Classifying psychological disorders
- Rates of psychological disorders
- Types of psychological disorders
- Anxiety disorders
- Obsessive–compulsive disorder
- Trauma- and stressor-related disorders
- Somatic symptom and related disorders
- Bipolar and related disorders
- Depressive disorders
- Schizophrenia
- Dissociative disorders
- Personality disorders
- Biological bases of nervous system disorders (PSY, BIO)
- Schizophrenia
- Depression
- Alzheimer’s disease
- Parkinson’s disease
- Stem cell-based therapy to regenerate neurons in the central nervous system (BIO)
Motivation (PSY)
- Factors that influence motivation
- Instinct
- Arousal
- Drives (e.g., negative feedback systems) (PSY, BIO)
- Needs
- Theories that explain how motivation affects human behavior
- Drive reduction theory
- Incentive theory
- Other theories (e.g., cognitive, need-based)
- Biological and sociocultural motivators that regulate behavior (e.g., hunger, sex drive, substance addiction)
Attitudes (PSY)
- Components of Attitudes (i.e., cognitive, affective, and behavioral)
- The link between attitudes and behavior
- Processes by which behavior influences attitudes (e.g., foot-in-the door phenomenon, role-playing effects)
- Processes by which attitudes influence behavior
- Cognitive dissonance theory
Content Category 7B: Social processes that influence human behavior
How the Presence of Others Affects Individual Behavior (PSY)
- Social facilitation
- Deindividuation
- Bystander effect
- Social loafing
- Social control (SOC)
- Peer pressure (PSY, SOC)
- Conformity (PSY, SOC)
- Obedience (PSY, SOC)
Group Decision-making Processes (PSY, SOC)
Normative and Non-normative Behavior (SOC)
- Social norms (PSY, SOC)
- Sanctions (SOC)
- Folkways, mores, and taboos (SOC)
- Anomie (SOC)
- Deviance
- Perspectives on deviance (e.g., differential association, labeling theory, strain theory)
- Aspects of collective behavior (e.g., fads, mass hysteria, riots)
Socialization (PSY, SOC)
Content Category 7C: Attitude and behavior change
Habituation and Dishabituation (PSY)
Associative Learning (PSY)
- Classical conditioning (PSY, BIO)
- Neutral, conditioned, and unconditioned stimuli
- Conditioned and unconditioned response
- Processes: acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination
- Operant conditioning (PSY, BIO)
- Processes of shaping and extinction
- Types of reinforcement: positive, negative, primary, conditional
- Reinforcement schedules: fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval
- Punishment
- Escape and avoidance learning
- The role of cognitive processes in associative learning
- Biological Processes that affect associative learning (e.g., biological predispositions, instinctive drift) (PSY, BIO)
Observational Learning (PSY)
- Modeling
- Biological processes that affect observational learning
- Mirror neurons
- Role of the brain in experiencing vicarious emotions
- Applications of observational learning to explain individual behavior
Theories of Attitude and Behavior Change (PSY)
- Elaboration likelihood model
- Social cognitive theory
- Factors that affect attitude change (e.g., changing behavior, characteristics of the message and target, social factors)
Foundational Concept 8
Content Category 8A: Self-identity
Self-Concept, Self-identity, and Social Identity (PSY, SOC)
- The role of self-esteem, self-efficacy, and locus of control in self-concept and self-identity (PSY)
- Different types of identities (e.g., race/ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, class)
Formation of Identity (PSY, SOC)
- Theories of identity development (e.g., gender, moral, psychosexual, social)
- Influence of social factors on identity formation
- Influence of individuals (e.g., imitation, looking-glass self, role-taking)
- Influence of groups (e.g., reference group)
- Influence of culture and socialization on identity formation
Content Category 8B: Social thinking
Attributing Behavior to Persons or Situations (PSY)
- Attributional processes (e.g., fundamental attribution error, role of culture in attributions)
- How self-perceptions shape our perceptions of others
- How perceptions of the environment shape our perceptions of others
Prejudice and Bias (PSY, SOC)
- Processes that contribute to prejudice
- Power, prestige, and class (SOC)
- The role of emotion in prejudice (PSY)
- The role of cognition in prejudice (PSY)
- Stereotypes
- Stigma (SOC)
- Ethnocentrism (SOC)
- Ethnocentrism vs. cultural relativism
Processes Related to Stereotypes (PSY)
Content Category 8C: Social interactions
Elements of Social Interaction (PSY, SOC)
- Status (SOC)
- Types of status (e.g., achieved, ascribed)
- Role
- Role conflict and role strain (SOC)
- Role exit (SOC)
- Groups
- Primary and secondary groups (SOC)
- In-group vs. out-group
- Group size (e.g., dyads, triads) (SOC)
- Networks (SOC)
- Organizations (SOC)
- Formal organization
- Bureaucracy
- Characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy
- Perspectives on bureaucracy (e.g., iron law of oligarchy, McDonaldization)
Self-presentation and Interacting with Others (PSY, SOC)
- Expressing and detecting emotion
- The role of gender in the expression and detection of emotion
- The role of culture in the expression and detection of emotion
- Presentation of self
- Impression management
- Front stage vs. back stage self (Dramaturgical approach) (SOC)
- Verbal and nonverbal communication
- Animal signals and communication (PSY, BIO)
Social Behavior (PSY)
- Attraction
- Aggression
- Attachment
- Altruism
- Social support (PSY, SOC)
- Biological explanations of social behavior in animals (PSY, BIO)
- Foraging behavior (BIO)
- Mating behavior and mate choice
- Applying game theory (BIO)
- Altruism
- Inclusive fitness (BIO)
Discrimination (PSY, SOC)
- Individual vs. institutional discrimination (SOC)
- The relationship between prejudice and discrimination
- How power, prestige, and class facilitate discrimination (SOC)
Foundational Concept 9
Content Category 9A: Understanding social structure
Theoretical Approaches (SOC)
- Microsociology vs. macrosociology
- Functionalism
- Conflict theory
- Symbolic interactionism
- Social constructionism
- Exchange-rational choice
- Feminist theory
Social Institutions (SOC)
- Education
- Hidden curriculum
- Teacher expectancy
- Educational segregation and stratification
- Family (PSY, SOC)
- Forms of kinship (SOC)
- Diversity in family forms
- Marriage and divorce
- Violence in the family (e.g., child abuse, elder abuse, spousal abuse) (SOC)
- Religion
- Religiosity
- Types of religious organizations (e.g., churches, sects, cults)
- Religion and social change (e.g., modernization, secularization, fundamentalism)
- Government and economy
- Power and authority
- Comparative economic and political systems
- Division of labor
- Health and medicine
- Medicalization
- The sick role
- Delivery of health care
- Illness experience
- Social epidemiology
Culture (PSY, SOC)
- Elements of culture (e.g., beliefs, language, rituals, symbols, values)
- Material vs. symbolic culture (SOC)
- Culture lag (SOC)
- Culture shock (SOC)
- Assimilation (SOC)
- Multiculturalism (SOC)
- Subcultures and countercultures (SOC)
- Mass Media and popular culture (SOC)
- Evolution and human culture (PSY, BIO)
- Transmission and diffusion (SOC)
Content Category 9B: Demographic characteristics and processes
Demographic Structure of Society (PSY, SOC)
- Age
- Aging and the life course
- Age cohorts (SOC)
- Social significance of aging
- Gender
- Sex versus gender
- The social construction of gender (SOC)
- Gender segregation (SOC)
- Race and ethnicity (SOC)
- The social construction of race
- Racialization
- Racial formation
- Immigration status (SOC)
- Patterns of immigration
- Intersections with race and ethnicity
- Sexual orientation
Demographic Shifts and Social Change (SOC)
- Theories of demographic change (i.e., Malthusian theory and demographic transition)
- Population growth and decline (e.g., population projections, population pyramids)
- Fertility, migration, and mortality
- Fertility and mortality rates (e.g., total, crude, age-specific)
- Patterns in fertility and mortality
- Push and pull factors in migration
- Social movements
- Relative deprivation
- Organization of social movements
- Movement strategies and tactics
- Globalization
- Factors contributing to globalization (e.g., communication technology, economic interdependence)
- Perspectives on globalization
- Social changes in globalization (e.g., civil unrest, terrorism)
- Urbanization
- Industrialization and urban growth
- Suburbanization and urban decline
- Gentrification and urban renewal
Foundational Concept 10
Content Category 10A: Social inequality
Spatial Inequality (SOC)
- Residential segregation
- Neighborhood safety and violence
- Environmental justice (location and exposure to health risks)
Social Class (SOC)
- Aspects of social stratification
- Social class and socioeconomic status
- Class consciousness and false consciousness
- Cultural capital and social capital
- Social reproduction
- Power, privilege, and prestige
- Intersectionality (e.g., race, gender, age)
- Socioeconomic gradient in health
- Global inequalities
- Patterns of social mobility
- Intergenerational and intragenerational mobility
- Vertical and horizontal mobility
- Meritocracy
- Poverty
- Relative and absolute poverty
- Social exclusion (segregation and isolation)