Section Bank: Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior: Passage 1

1) To answer this question, we can jump back to the passage and do a quick recap of Phase 1 and what the participants were asked to do. Something I want you to note: I’m not going through the answer choices just yet. I’m going to try and break down the question using the passage and my general knowledge of the behavioral content. Why is that? I don’t want the answers making me biased as I go through them. This way, I’m not being influenced by the possible answers or trying to justify an answer even though it may be incorrect. 

Here we have the part of the passage that talks about phase 1. I want you to focus on what the participants were asked to do. It says “Participants were instructed to repeat immediately any digits they heard in the attended ear.” 

We can look at this within the context of the entire phase. The digits come in to the relevant ear, and the participants have to recall and repeat the digits they heard in the attended ear, and within the stream of bisyllabic words. The key here is what the participants have to do next. They’re asked to recall, and then immediately repeat the appropriate digits from the attended ear, to the researchers. Now in theory, we should be done. Hopefully there’s an answer choice that mentions that sentence or something along the lines of “recalling digits from attended ear and repeating those digits”. We’re going to go through the answer choices one by one, and methodically eliminate incorrect answer choices. 

1. Shadow the attended ear. Right away, this answer choice sounds like our breakdown. What is shadowing? Essentially what happened in Phase 1. A participant in a study will repeat back words, as other stimuli are mixed in. In Phase 1, we had digits played in the ears of the participants. The participants had to recall and repeat the digits presented to the attended ear only. These digits were mixed in, within the stream of bisyllabic words. Textbook example of shadowing, so we’re going to hold on to answer choice A for now. But we’re not done. Remember, we always want the best answer choice. We might have an answer choice that’s more specific, or more correct in some way. 
2. Shadow the unattended ear. Phase 1 didn’t involve shadowing the unattended ear. We don’t want the participants recalling and repeating the digits from the unattended ear, we can eliminate answer choice B because it contradicts what we read in the passage.
3. Recall the information presented on the attended ear. This answer choice is interesting. The participants do have to recall some information presented on the attended ear, but they’re also asked to repeat specific information. In fact, the author explicitly says this. This answer choice is incomplete. It doesn’t tell the whole story like answer choice A.
4. Repress the information presented on the unattended ear. This answer choice is again something that’s tangentially related to the correct answer. The participants don’t want to recall and repeat the information presented on the unattended ear. But what is this question asking? What are the participants instructed to do? They’re instructed to repeat immediately any digits they heard in the attended ear. While they may have to repress information presented on the unattended ear, that’s not what they’re explicitly instructed to do. Make sure to read the question carefully. We’re left with our correct answer, answer choice A.

2) The passage talked about there being more intrusion errors in certain circumstances, so we can quickly reference what the author says.

Here we have an excerpt from the passage, and we’re concerned with the topic on our content outline titled: Brain Areas That Control Language and Speech. I also added a nice visual right below. 

The passage says Most intrusions of digits from the unattended ear occurred when participants were instructed to attend to the left ear. Intrusions are the opposite of omissions. An intrusion related to the right ear would mean one of the incorrect digits heard in the right ear was recalled and repeated. That’s despite the fact the participants were instructed to attend to the left ear. The digit from the unattended, right ear was not meant to be repeated, but it was mistakenly. 

We have to think about the input that comes into each ear, and travels to our brains. Sound is similar to vision, in that input coming into the left side (or left ear in this case), is going to go to the right hemisphere, and vice versa. Is that going to cause any problems for us, or would that explain the discrepancy in intrusion errors? Well, think about it this way: think big picture and more generically. Which side of the brain is responsible for language and speech? It’s the left side, or left hemisphere. Look at the image right below the excerpt. If we have input traveling into the left ear, that input goes to the right hemisphere of the brain. That’s all well and good, but we said the left hemisphere is the side we associate with being responsible for language and speech. Looking at this from the other perspective: the input that goes into the right ear, then travels to the left hemisphere, will be processed in that same hemisphere. That should theoretically produce fewer errors. 

1. Verbal inputs to the right ear, which first go to the auditory cortex in the right hemisphere, must be processed by the language areas of the left hemisphere. Right away, we see an issue. Where should verbal inputs to the right ear go? Auditory cortex in the opposite hemisphere, or the left hemisphere. Final part of the answer is good: input is processed by language areas of the left hemisphere. 
2. Verbal inputs to the right ear, which first go to the auditory cortex in the left hemisphere, must be processed by the language areas of the right hemisphere. First part of this answer choice looks much better. We have verbal input to the right ear and the input goes to the auditory cortex in the left hemisphere. But that’s also where it should be processed. This answer choice incorrectly says the input must be processed in the right hemisphere. Both A and B aren’t great, but both are only partially incorrect. 
3. Verbal inputs to the left ear, which first go to the auditory cortex in the left hemisphere, must be processed by the language areas of the right hemisphere. This answer choice combines the incorrect parts of A and B. The input to the left ear should go to the auditory cortex in the right hemisphere. It’s processed by language areas of the left hemisphere.
4. Verbal inputs to the left ear, which first go to the auditory cortex in the right hemisphere, must be processed by the language areas of the left hemisphere. This answer choice sounds like a keeper. We have verbal input to the left ear. That goes to the auditory cortex in the right hemisphere and must be processed by the language areas of the left hemisphere. That difference is what ultimately causes more intrusion errors. This is the best answer choice of the choices listed, so we’re left with our correct answer, answer choice D: Verbal inputs to the left ear, which first go to the auditory cortex in the right hemisphere, must be processed by the language areas of the left hemisphere

3) As we read through the passage, we focused on some correlations, and we want to be careful to pick an answer choice that is NOT suggested by those correlations. Be careful with the verbiage here. Ultimately, this comes down to eliminating 3 answer choices that’re consistent with the passage. Our correct answer is going to be the odd-one-out.

We have an excerpt from the passage, and the last bit here says There was a strong negative correlation between the number of errors in Phase 2 and the successful completion of pilot training. Then last sentence here says The number of errors in Phase 2 had low correlations with all other tests used for pilot selection. There it is! We have our correlations. For the first sentence a high number of errors correlates to a low success rate in pilot training. A low number of errors correlates to a higher success rate in pilot training. Negative correlation.

For the last sentence, we have a low correlation. A low correlation isn’t the same as a negative correlation. A low correlation just means there isn’t as clear of a relationship between the variables. 

To summarize our correlations: the number of errors in Phase 2 correlated to whether the pilot completes the training or not. The number of errors does not correlate with other tests used for pilot selection. 

1. the study’s measure of attention capabilities enhances the predictive validity of the pilot selection test battery. And the pilot selection test battery is just referencing the selection process for pilots. Phase 2 was a test of maintaining and reorienting attention. The number of errors in phase 2 correlated to whether the pilot completes the training or not. That means the correlations do suggest answer choice A. Be careful here, the question stem says “EXCEPT” in big, bold letters. Never have that be the reason you miss a question. 
2. the study’s measure of attention capabilities reduces the predictive validity of the pilot selection test battery. This answer choice sounds like the opposite of answer choice A, and the opposite of our breakdown. We said phase 2 was a test of maintaining and reorienting attention. Errors in phase 2 correlated to whether the pilot completes the training or not. That means it enhances the predictive validity. We can keep answer choice B for now, but we can eliminate answer choice A-it contradicts what we were looking for in the question stem, because of what we read in the passage.
3. flight cadets who perform better on the task are more likely to complete training on more advanced equipment than those whose performance is poorer. This answer just sounds like answer choice A. The cadets that perform better on the task, or the ones who had the best attention capabilities are most likely to complete training.  We can also eliminate answer choice C for contradicting the question stem, because of what we read in the passage.
4. flight cadets who make more errors in Phase 2 are less likely to complete training on more advanced equipment. Another answer choice that’s consistent with what we read in the passage. Biggest issue here would be misreading the question and not seeing the question stem asks for something that’s not a correlation. We’re left with our correct answer, answer choice B.

4) To answer this question, we have to ask: what can measuring the ability to redirect attention tell us about accident rates in bus drivers? We can focus on Phase 2 because we’re focused on redirecting attention, which is something we just focused on in our last question. That was what the researchers looked at in Phase 2. Errors in phase 2 were obviously bad. We said a high number of errors correlated to not completing pilot training. The opposite is also true. A lower number of errors correlated to successful completion of pilot training.

1. Phase 1 will be directly related to accident rates. This answer choice isn’t as relevant to the question being asked. Phase 1 was not the phase that focused on the ability to redirect attention. That was phase 2. Why is redirecting attention so important? Think about how much bus drivers (and drivers in general) have to redirect their attention. There are constantly cars going around them, next to them, sometimes toward them. Redirecting attention is going to be vital to not crashing. 
2. Phase 1 will be inversely related to accident rates. Same issue as answer choice A. Now that being said, if we have a higher rate in general, that likely means an inverse relationship to accident rates. We can eliminate answer choice A for now, but we still want an answer choice that focuses on Phase 2. 
3. Phase 2 will be directly related to accident rates. This answer choice sounds pretty solid at first glance. We said Phase 2 focuses on the ability to redirect attention. Error rates in Phase 2, should therefore be directly related to accident rates. Not maintaining and reorienting attention is a bad thing for pilots and bus drivers. That would directly relate to accident rates. This is our best answer so far.
4. Phase 2 will be inversely related to accident rates. This answer choice is the opposite of answer choice C, so right away we don’t like it. This is a better option than answer choice A, but being in the top 3 isn’t a good enough reason to pick this answer. It still contradicts what we know from the passage. We’re left with our correct answer, answer choice C: Phase 2 will be directly related to accident rates

5) To answer this question, we can go back to what we read in the passage. The purpose of the experiment is to develop or find a standardized test that can identify cadets that will be most proficient in flying. They want to weed out the bad candidates, and just be left with the best prospects. Let’s think back: Phase 1 asked participants to shadow their attended ear, and Phase 2 involved maintaining attention or reorienting attention. Ultimately, the task found a strong, negative correlation between the number of errors in Phase 2 and completion of the training. Said differently, the task weeded out the worst candidates.

1. Yes, because cadets who completed training on more advanced equipment had performed significantly better on the task than those who dropped out of the training earlier. This sounds consistent with our breakdown. The ones that did poorly during the task are also the ones that dropped out of the training. The inverse is also true. Cadets that completed training were not weeded out during the task. 
2. No, because performance in Phase 2 of the task did not predict performance on other tests used in pilot selection. While this may be true in a vacuum, we’re only focused on the main purpose here. The task was meant to identify cadets that are most proficient at flying by weeding out bad candidates. We can eliminate this answer choice, it’s not addressing the specific question being asked. 
3. Yes, because cadets’ ability to divide attention between simultaneous inputs was predicted by their performance in Phase 1. This is similar to answer choice B. The best correlation for our purpose was being able to redirect attention in Phase 2, not dividing attention in Phase 1. We can eliminate this answer choice for the same reason. 
4. No, because cadets’ performance in Phase 1 did not predict their ability to redirect attention in Phase 2. This answer choice is also a bit out of scope. Even if Phase 1 didn’t predict ability in Phase 2, the main correlation came from the results in Phase 2. Sure, having good results in both phases would be great, but that’s not what we’re looking for to answer this specific question. We can eliminate answer choice D, we’re left with our correct answer, answer choice A: Yes, because cadets who completed training on more advanced equipment had performed significantly better on the task than those who dropped out of the training earlier.

6) Said differently, what cognitive process was used in Phase 1? This is almost like a pseudo discrete, so make sure you know your vocab for this section! We know the flight cadets were required to repeat certain digits in Phase 1. Question 1 in this set was actually about this process also. We said the cadets were required to shadow the attended ear and only recall and repeat specific digits. They were expected to ignore any digits in the non-attended ear, and any extra words between the digits. 

1. Divided attention. Divided attention is the ability of the brain to attend to two different stimuli at the same time. That’s not what we want here. We want to ignore the digits in the other ear, and ignore the bisyllabic words as well. If anything, we’d want selective attention.
2. Sensory memory. This involves remembering sensory stimuli. In this case, the flight cadets weren’t concerned with memory, they were repeating the digits back almost instantly. Neither A, nor B are great, but neither stands out either. 
3. Selective attention. Selective attention is demonstrated when many stimuli are present, and a person ignores the non-task-related stimuli. Sound like Phase 1? It sounds exactly like what the flight cadets had to do. They were focused on a specific set of digits while trying to tune out any words, and any digits in the non-attended ear. This describes what we read in the passage, we can now eliminate answer choices A and B. Neither one correctly identified the cognitive process. Again, this comes down to knowing your vocab.
4. Sensory coding. This involves processing information through reception, transduction, coding, and awareness. This is outside the scope of this question and Phase 1. When the cadets were listening for the digits in their attended ear, that can best be described as selective attention. We can eliminate answer choice D so we’re left with our correct answer, answer choice C: Selective attention. 

 

Section Bank: Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior: Passage 2

7) This answer is going to come from going back to table 1 in the passage. There was a lot of data, so we can theoretically make an infinite number of observations, so we’ll look at the data while going through the 4 options presented to us.

1. led to higher impulsivity scores during distraction tasks. Looking at Table 1, we’re looking at the impulsivity measurements. We have a vigilance task and we have a distractibility task related to impulsivity. This answer choice is talking about the distractibility score specifically. In the cocaine exposure group, we do have higher impulsivity scores, so this answer choice is consistent with the data in Table 1. Let’s hold on to this answer choice.
2. was associated with poor achievement scores, especially for reading and science. We talked during our readthrough about the difference in math scores, but reading and science scores are actually similar. We can eliminate this answer choice.
3. led to lower IQ scores than is typically found among children in the general population. IQ scores in Table 1 are similar, so nothing to indicate cocaine exposure led to lower IQ scores. We can eliminate this answer choice. 
4. affected the intellectual and academic performance of low SES children more than that of their high SES peers. This may or may not be true, but we’re only dealing with low SES children. We don’t have numbers for their high SES peers, so we can eliminate this answer choice, we’re left with our correct answer, answer choice A: led to higher impulsivity scores during distraction tasks. 

8) In other words, why did researchers pick from such a specific group of people for their sample? We’ll have to think about why the researchers only picked women from the same city and socioeconomic status.

In research, you have variables. You can either control or measure these variables, and you can see the relationships between variables. When you’re researching something though, you have to think about any other variables that could affect your results. In this study, the researchers decided to minimize any outside factors like growing up in different cities or states. We also said in our readthrough, that by choosing only women that have low socioeconomic status, the researchers can try and ensure a similar background for the mothers. This allows the researchers to focus on their variables of interest.

1. eliminated all the variables that would have confounded interpretation of the results. Confounding variables are extra variables that aren’t accounted for, but can alter your results. Ideally you can eliminate every confounding variable, but that’s usually not plausible. Like in this study, for example. A woman might not want to admit to cocaine use, so she changes her answers. By picking from a group of people with a specific background, researchers can avoid some confounding variables, but this answer is extreme. 
2. set up an experiment to assess how cocaine might affect the human brain. For the research to be applicable to the human brain in general, it would have to apply to the entire world. In this case, the study was focused on children born to women having low socioeconomic status, and living in the same, large city. Limiting the sample didn’t allow researchers to assess how cocaine might affect the human brain in general.
3. reduced variability due to differences in the quality of public schools. This is a viable answer choice. We said all of the women came from a large US city, and all had low socioeconomic status. This essentially makes it so most of the participants will have a similar background and environment. That similar environment means going to the same school, or at least being in the same district and quality of school. I’m liking this answer choice as our best option so far. A was too extreme, and B was unreasonable.
4. were unable to draw any conclusions regarding prenatal cocaine exposure. This answer choice is also unreasonable. The researchers did draw conclusions in the passage. In fact, a majority of the passage revolved around their conclusions. This contradicts what we read in the passage. We’re left with our correct answer, answer choice C.

9) The passage mentioned measuring IQ scores of the children at age 6, but this is a pseudo-discrete question. We’re going to recall what we know about IQ scores and their distribution in a population. IQ is used to quantitatively measure intelligence. Average IQ is 100 and standard deviation is 15 points. We also know the majority of the population falls within one standard deviation of the mean. Meaning 68% of the population falls within that 85 to 115 range. Even with newer IQ tests, that score scale and breakdown remains roughly the same.

1. more than two-thirds of children will score between 85 and 115. This answer choice matches our breakdown. We actually quantified this and said roughly 68% of the population will fall in a score range between 85 and 115. I’m liking this answer choice for now. 
2. a quarter of all children will perform poorly on least one component of the exam. This is not an assumption of IQ-testing. Biggest defining characteristics are average IQ of 100, and standard deviation of 15 points. Scores are normalized to 100, and we don’t expect such a significant portion to perform terrible on any specific component of the exam. 
3. significantly more children will score at the extremes of the scoring distribution than in the middle. This is the opposite of what we expect. Scores are normalized to the mean score of 100. We expect more children to score around this average than to score at the extremes. This contradicts what we know about IQ. 
4. only exceptionally gifted children would have IQ scores above 85 by age 6; perfect test scores are rare during early childhood. This ties into what we saw earlier where scores are normalized to 100. Average IQ is 100, so it would be more than just the exceptionally gifted children with IQ scores above 85. We can eliminate this answer choice, it also contradicts our definition. We’re left with our correct answer, answer choice A: more than two-thirds of children will score between 85 and 115.

10) To answer this question, we want to pick the brain area least involved in the abilities from Paragraph 1. 

The behavioral section tests biology concepts as they relate to mental processes and behavior. That’s exactly what we’re looking for here. 

Numbers 1-3 all involve different issues that aren’t necessarily abilities. Number 4 gets into actual abilities: discrimination learning, and attention skills. We want the brain area least involved in learning and attention abilities. That means we can also rule out brain areas that deal with memory like the hippocampus, neo-cortex, and amygdala.  Those are related to these abilities.

1. Frontal lobe. Frontal lobe deals with learning and attention skills. It’s involved in problem solving, memory, and judgment. 
2. Hippocampus. Hippocampus deals with memory, and specifically long-term memory. Memory affects discrimination learning skills. 
3. Hypothalamus. Hypothalamus has to do with controlling the autonomic nervous system, which means regulating bodily functions. It controls things like hunger, thirst, sleep, and regulates body temperature and secretion of hormones. It would be least involved in learning and attention abilities. 
4. Thalamus. The thalamus serves as a relay station for information that comes and goes to the cortex. It plays a role in memory, which contradicts what we’re looking for in this question. We can also eliminate answer choice D. We’re left with our correct answer, answer choice C: Hypothalamus.

11) This question implies we’ll be given 4 experimental observations and we want one that supports the hypothesis that when a pregnant primate is administered cocaine, cocaine is pharmacologically active in the fetal brain. We’ll have to know some general information about cocaine, and how it’s typically metabolized and seen in the body. Cocaine is a stimulant that rapidly enters the bloodstream and penetrates the brain. It ultimately causes a buildup of dopamine. That’s the high people get; people experience increased pleasure and motivation. We know this elevated level of dopamine buildup is problematic. But for this question, we’re only focused on the mechanism. Let’s break down the 4 experimental observations.

1. Glucose metabolism in the fetal brain increased. Why would glucose metabolism in the brain increase? Because there’s brain activity, and because the major source of energy for the brain is glucose. Cocaine is a stimulant, and stimulants lead to activity in the fetal brain. Increased activity in the brain would cause increased glucose consumption, like we said. We like this answer choice for now.
2. Imaging studies showed that cocaine entered the fetal circulation. Cocaine entering the fetal circulation would need to happen for it to eventually be active in the fetal brain. But we don’t know if it actually crosses the blood-brain barrier, or if it’s active. The presence alone doesn’t mean it’s active in the fetal brain. Too many connections are made here that aren’t necessarily true. 
3. The fetus had an increase in tolerance to pain. This answer choice is a stretch. Stimulants aren’t known to make people more tolerant to pain. We also don’t know if we can measure the difference in pain felt by the fetus, or if there’s any pain felt at all. Another answer choice where we’re making connections that aren’t necessarily true. 
4. Imaging studies showed increased internalization of dopamine receptors. Internalization is usually synonymous with endocytosis. Internalization of dopamine receptors implies movement of receptors from the plasma membrane to the inside of the cell. Dopamine can’t bind to these receptors anymore, so we wouldn’t see the elevated effect of cocaine. We can eliminate this answer choice because it contradicts what the question stem is looking for. We’re left with our best answer, answer choice A: Glucose metabolism in the fetal brain increased

12) In other words, which answer choice describes a neurotransmitter? From the passage, we have to recall cocaine exposure during pregnancy alters the function of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine (3 neurotransmitters). The author mentions this in the first sentence, but the answer is ultimately going to come from our general knowledge. This is like a pseudo-discrete question, or standalone question. We’re picking the characteristic that describe neurotransmitters.

1. is only manufactured in endocrine glands throughout the body. This is false. Endocrine glands produce endocrine, autocrine, and paracrine molecules. Neurotransmitters are produced in neurons. This is factually incorrect.
2. binds to a receptor on a postsynaptic membrane within the CNS. This describes a neurotransmitter. They bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. This answer choice is just describing the mechanism by which they bind, so we like this answer choice. Answer choice A was factually incorrect, so we can eliminate that answer choice.
3. is distributed to target neurons within the cerebrospinal fluid. Neurotransmitters are released at synapses of neurons. Synapses rely on the secretion of neurotransmitters across a synaptic cleft from the presynaptic neuron. The neurotransmitters will move over the synaptic cleft to the postsynaptic neuron. The neurotransmitters aren’t within the cerebrospinal fluid. This is factually incorrect. 
4. transmits signals between two neurons at a faster speed than through gap junctions. Gap junctions are channels between neighboring cells that allow for transport. This can include ions, water, and other substances, but not neurotransmitters. We can eliminate this answer choice as well, it contradicts what we know about neurotransmitters. We’re left with our correct answer, answer choice B.

 

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